Khubilai Khan's Promotion of Culture and Education

Key Insight

Khubilai Khan radically expanded the use of paper money, a significant economic innovation. Made from mulberry bark, this paper currency was cut into various sizes, marked with value, and stamped with a vermilion seal. It proved far easier to handle and ship than traditional bulky coins, becoming universally accepted across the empire, with refusal punishable by death. Marco Polo noted that people were 'perfectly willing to be paid in paper money since with it they can buy anything including pearls, precious stones, gold, or silver.' To regulate credit and markets, Mongol law introduced declarations of bankruptcy, but limited them to twice; a third declaration could result in execution. These monetary refinements demonstrated Khubilai's appreciation for practical aspects of Chinese culture, even as he rejected other elements like Confucianism.

In education, Khubilai built numerous public schools and revived the Chinese Hanlin Academy to promote traditional learning. He founded the Mongolian Language School in 1269 and the Mongolian National University in Khanbalik in 1271, commissioning scholars to record events and preserve texts. A groundbreaking initiative was his effort to provide universal education to all children, including peasants, with teachers using colloquial language for practical lessons. Records indicate 20166 public schools were created during his reign, an astonishing achievement for universal education centuries ahead of European efforts. He also sought to create a single universal alphabet, commissioning the Tibetan lama Phagspa in 1269 to develop a 41-letter script; however, Chinese scholars, attached to their ancient language, largely resisted its adoption.

Culturally, Khubilai upset traditional hierarchies by organizing peasants into 'she' units of about 50 households, granting them broad authority over local farming, resource management, and education. This fostered general literacy and improved quality of life. He encouraged a wider range of literary endeavors, promoting writing in colloquial language over the classical style preferred by bureaucrats, thus combining folk and court cultures. He enthusiastically supported drama, a neglected art in traditional China, staging plays in the royal compound filled with acrobatic action and emotional music. An estimated 500 new plays were performed, with 160 surviving, marking the Mongol era as a golden age for Chinese drama. He also elevated the social status of performing artists and built theater districts, laying the foundation for Peking Opera, while maintaining a cultural abhorrence of bloodshed in public entertainment, unlike many other empires.