Political Parties in the United States: Nature, Evolution, and Current State

Key Insight

Political parties are an inherent characteristic of free governments, yet their nature varies significantly. A distinction exists between 'rival nations' — diverse populations within a single sovereignty with contradictory interests, where conflict resembles civil war between peoples — and 'parties properly so-called,' where citizens differ on general principles of government affecting all equally. Historically, 'great parties' emerge during times of profound political or social upheaval, dedicating themselves to principles, generalities, and ideas rather than particulars, men, or self-interest. They exhibit nobler features, generous passions, and genuine convictions, often concealing private interest under the veil of public good. Conversely, 'minor parties' arise in calmer periods, driven by self-interest, lacking political faith, and characterized by violent rhetoric but timid actions, with squalid tactics and goals. Great parties can disrupt society but sometimes save it; minor parties merely agitate and corrupt without profit.

America once had great parties, a condition that no longer exists today, contributing to its happiness but not necessarily its morality. Following the War of Independence, two major factions emerged: the Federalists, who sought to limit the people's power and shaped the Union Constitution, and the Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, who advocated for extending popular power. The Federalists, though a minority with considerable moral power and influential leaders, controlled government business for 10-12 years but ultimately lost to the Republicans in 1801, leading to their dissolution as a party. The Federalist government, despite its eventual defeat, was crucial for establishing the new republic, and many of its principles endured, with the federal Constitution serving as a lasting testament to their wisdom. Today, the United States lacks such principle-driven 'great parties'; instead, it is 'teeming with minor ones' and parties based on material interests, particularly between regions like the manufacturing North and agricultural South, which resemble 'rival nations' more than ideological factions.

The current absence of great parties in the United States stems from several factors: a lack of religious hatred due to universal respect for religion, no dominant sect, an absence of class hatred because 'the people are everything,' and no widespread public misery to exploit due to favorable economic conditions. Despite this, ambition ensures party formation. Politicians organize groups around shared interests, then seek a doctrine or principle to legitimize their association. While American domestic disputes may appear trivial to outsiders, they often reflect the enduring, underlying conflict between those wanting to limit public power and those seeking to extend it, representing aristocratic versus democratic passions. For instance, public support for the president's attack on the independent Bank of the United States illustrates the people's desire to see all institutions, even stable ones, subject to democratic change, while the wealthy, now largely out of politics and experiencing disfavor due to their wealth, publicly praise democracy but privately harbor 'deep disgust' for democratic institutions, fearing and despising 'the people.' Parties primarily use newspapers and associations as their tools for influence.